For four decades, Indian immigrants waged a continuous legal and political battle for the right to become American citizens. Early court victories established fragile precedents that were overturned in 1923 by United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, leading to the loss of citizenship for many Indian Americans and, in some cases, land losses under California’s Alien Land Laws. The community responded with sustained political organizing, led by J.J. Singh and the India League of America. That effort culminated in the Luce-Celler Act of 1946, signed by President Truman, which restored naturalization rights and established the first Indian immigration quota.
